Humans have evolved a highly efficient iron management system in which we absorb and excrete only about 1 mg of the metal daily; there is no mechanism for the excretion of excess iron [Brittenham, G. M. Disorders of Iron Metabolism: Iron Deficiency and Overload. In Hematology: Basic Principles and Practice; 3rd ed.; Hoffman, R., Benz, E. J., Shattil, S. J., Furie, B., Cohen, H. J. et al., Eds.; Churchill Livingstone: New York, 2000; pp 397-428]. Whether derived from transfused red blood cells [Olivieri, N. F. and Brittenham, G. M. Iron-chelating Therapy and the Treatment of Thalassemia. Blood 1997, 89, 739-761; Vichinsky, E. P. Current Issues with Blood Transfusions in Sickle Cell Disease. Semin. Hematol. 2001, 38, 14-22; Kersten, M. J., Lange, R., Smeets, M. E., Vreugdenhil, G., Roozendaal, K. J., Lameijer, W. and Goudsmit, R. Long-Term Treatment of Transfusional Iron Overload with the Oral Iron Chelator Deferiprone (L1): A Dutch Multicenter Trial. Ann. Hematol. 1996, 73, 247-252] or from increased absorption of dietary iron iron [Conrad, M. E.; Umbreit, J. N.; Moore, E. G. Iron Absorption and Transport. Am. J. Med. Sci. 1999, 318, 213-229; Lieu, P. T.; Heiskala, M.; Peterson, P. A; Yang, Y. The Roles of Iron in Health and Disease, Mol. Aspects Med. 2001, 22, 1-87], without effective treatment, body iron progressively increases with deposition in the liver, heart, pancreas, and elsewhere. Iron accumulation eventually produces (i) liver disease that may progress to cirrhosis [Angelucci, E.; Brittenham, G. M.; McLaren, C. E.; Ripalti, M.; Baronciani, D.; Giardini, C.; Galimberti, M.; Polchi, P.; Lucarelli, G. Hepatic Iron Concentration and Total Body Iron Stores in Thalassemia Major. N. Engl. J. Med. 2000, 343, 327-331; Bonkovsky, H. L.; Lambrecht, R. W. Iron-Induced Liver Injury. Clin. Liver Dis. 2000, 4, 409429, vi-vii; Pietrangelo, A Mechanism of Iron Toxicity. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2002, 509, 19-43], (ii) diabetes related both to iron-induced decreases in pancreatic β-cell secretion and to increases in hepatic insulin resistance [Cario, H.; Holl, R. W.; Debatin, K. M.; Kohne, E. Insulin Sensitivity and p-Cell Secretion in Thalassaemia Major with Secondary Haemochromatosis: Assessment by Oral Glucose Tolerance Test. Eur. J. Pediatr. 2003, 162, 139-146; Wojcik, J. P.; Speechley, M. R.; Kertesz, A E.; Chakrabarti, S.; Adams, P. C. Natural History of C282Y Homozygotes for Hemochromatosis. Can. J. Gastroenterol. 2002, 16, 297-302], and (iii) heart disease, still the leading cause of death in thalassemia major and related forms of transfusional iron overload [Brittenham, G. M. Disorders of Iron Metabolism: Iron Deficiency and Overload. In Hematology: Basic Principles and Practice; 3rd ed.; Hoffman, R., Benz, E. J., Shattil, S. J., Furie, B., Cohen, H. J. et aI., Eds.; Churchill Livingstone: New York, 2000; pp 397-428; Brittenham, G. M.; Griffith, P. M.; Nienhuis, A W.; McLaren, C. E.; Young, N. S.; Tucker, E. E.; Allen, C. J.; Farrell, D. E.; Harris, J. W. Efficacy of Deferoxamine in Preventing Complications of Iron Overload in Patients with Thalassemia Major. N. Engl. J. Med. 1994, 331, 567-573; Zurlo, M. G.; De Stefano, P.; Borgna-Pignatti, C.; Di Palma, A.; Piga, A.; Melevendi, C.; Di Gregorio, F.; Burattini, M. G.; Terzoli, S. Survival and Causes of Death in Thalassaemia Major. Lancet 1989, 2, 27-30].
Although iron comprises 5% of the earth's crust, living systems have great difficulty in accessing and managing this vital micronutrient. The low solubility of Fe(III) hydroxide (Ksp=1×10−39) [Raymond, K. N.; Carrano, C. J. Coordination Chemistry and Microbial Iron Transport. Ace. Chem. Res. 1979, 12, 183-190], the predominant form of the metal in the biosphere, has led to the development of sophisticated iron storage and transport systems in nature. Microorganisms utilize low molecular weight, virtually ferric ion-specific ligands, siderophores [Byers, B. R; Arceneaux, J. E. Microbial Iron Transport: Iron Acquisition by Pathogenic Microorganisms. Met. Ions Biol. Syst. 1998, 35, 37-66; Kalinowski, D. S.; Richardson, D. R. The Evolution of Iron Chelators for the Treatment of Iron Overload Disease and Cancer. Pharmacol Rev. 2005, 57, 547-583.]; higher eukaryotes tend to employ proteins to transport and store iron (e.g., transferrin and ferritin, respectively) [Bergeron, R. J. Iron: A Controlling Nutrient in Proliferative Processes. Trends Biochem. Sci. 1986, 11, 133-136; Theil, E. c.; Huynh, B. H. Ferritin Mineralization: Ferroxidation and Beyond. J. Inorg. Biochem. 1997, 67, 30; Ponka, P.; Beaumont, c.; Richardson, D. R. Function and Regulation of Transferrin and Ferritin, Semin. Hematol. 1998, 35, 35-54]. In humans, nontransferrin-bound plasma iron, a heterogeneous pool of the metal in the circulation, unmanaged iron, seems to be a principal source of iron-mediated organ damage.
The toxicity associated with excess iron, whether a systemic or a focal problem, derives from its interaction with reactive oxygen species, for instance, endogenous hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) [Graf, E.; Mahoney, J. R; Bryant, R. G.; Eaton, J. W. Iron-Catalyzed Hydroxyl Radical Formation. Stringent Requirement for Free Iron Coordination Site. J. Biol. Chem. 1984, 259, 36203624; Halliwell, B. Free Radicals and Antioxidants: A Personal View. Nutr. Rev. 1994, 52, 253-265; Halliwell, B. Iron, Oxidative Damage, and Chelating Agents. In The Development of Iron Chelators for Clinical Use; Bergeron, R. J., Brittenham, G. M., Eds.; CRC: Boca Raton, 1994; pp 3356; Koppenol, W. Kinetics and Mechanism of the Fenton Reaction: Implications for Iron Toxicity. In Iron Chelators: New Development Strategies; Badman, D. G., Bergeron, R. J., Brittenham, G. M., Eds.; Saratoga: Ponte Vedra Beach, F L, 2000; pp 3-10]. In the presence of Fe(II), H2O2 is reduced to the hydroxyl radical (HO.), a very reactive species, and HO−, a process known as the Fenton reaction. The Fe(III) liberated can be reduced back to Fe(II) via a variety of biological reductants (e.g., ascorbate), a problematic cycle. The hydroxyl radical reacts very quickly with a variety of cellular constituents and can initiate free radicals and radical-mediated chain processes that damage DNA and membranes, as well as produce carcinogens [Halliwell, B. Free Radicals and Antioxidants: A Personal View. Nutr. Rev. 1994, 52, 253-265; Babbs, C. F. Oxygen Radicals in Ulcerative Colitis. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 1992, 13, 169-181; Hazen, S. L.; d'Avignon, A; Anderson, M. M.; Hsu, F. F.; Heinecke, J. W. Human Neutrophils Employ the Myeloperoxidase-Hydrogen Peroxide-Chloride System to Oxidize a-Amino Acids to a Family of Reactive Aldehydes. Mechanistic Studies Identifying Labile Intermediates along the Reaction Pathway. J. Biol. Chem. 1998, 273, 4997-5005]. The solution to the problem is to remove excess unmanaged iron [Bergeron, R. J.; McManis, J. S.; Weimar, W. R; Wiegand, J.; Eiler-McManis, E. Iron Chelators and Therapeutic Uses. In Burger's Medicinal Chemistry; 6th ed.; Abraham, D. A, Ed.; Wiley: New York, 2003; pp 479-561].
In the majority of patients with thalassemia major or other transfusion-dependent refractory anemias, the severity of the anemia precludes phlebotomy therapy as a means of removing toxic accumulations of iron. Treatment with a chelating agent capable of sequestering iron and permitting its excretion from the body is then the only therapeutic approach available. The iron-chelating agents now in use or under clinical evaluation [Brittenham, G. M. Iron Chelators and Iron Toxicity. Alcohol 2003, 30, 151-158] include desferrioxamine B mesylate (DFOa), 1,2-dimethyl-3-hydroxypyridin-4-one (deferiprone, L1), 4-[3,5-bis(2-hydroxyphenyl)-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl]benzoic acid (deferasirox, ICL670A), and the desferrithiocin (DFT) analogue, (S)-2-(2,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-4,5-dihydro-4-methyl-4-thiazolecarboxylic acid [deferitrin, (S)-4′-(HO)-DADFT, 1; Table 1]. Subcutaneous (sc) infusion of desferrioxamine B (DFO), a hexacoordinate hydroxamate iron chelator produced by Streptomyces pilosus [Bickel, H., Hall, G. E., Keller-Schierlein, W., Prelog, V., Vischer, E. and Wettstein, A. Metabolic Products of Actinomycetes. XXVII. Constitutional Formula of Ferrioxamine B. Helv. Chim. Acta 1960, 43, 2129-2138], is still regarded as a credible treatment for handling transfusional iron overload [Olivieri, N. F. and Brittenham, G. M. Iron-chelating Therapy and the Treatment of Thalassemia. Blood 1997, 89, 739-761; Giardina, P. J. and Grady, R. W. Chelation Therapy in β-Thalassemia: An Optimistic Update. Semin. Hematol. 2001, 38, 360-366]. DFO is not orally active, and when administered sc, has a very short half-life in the body and must therefore be given by continuous infusion over long periods of time [Olivieri, N. F. and Brittenham, G. M. Iron-chelating Therapy and the Treatment of Thalassemia. Blood 1997, 89, 739-761; Pippard, M. J. Desferrioxamine-Induced Iron Excretion in Humans. Bailliere's Clin. Haematol. 1989, 2, 323-343]. For these reasons, patient compliance is a serious problem [Olivieri, N. F. and Brittenham, G. M. Iron-chelating Therapy and the Treatment of Thalassemia. Blood 1997, 89, 739-761; Giardina, P. J. and Grady, R. W. Chelation Therapy in β-Thalassemia: An Optimistic Update. Semin. Hematol. 2001, 38, 360-366]. The orally active bidentate chelator, deferiprone, is licensed in Europe and some other countries as second-line therapy to DFO [Hoffbrand, A V.; Al-Refaie, F.; Davis, B.; Siritanakatkul, N.; Jackson, B. F. A; Cochrane, J.; Prescott, E.; Wonke, B. Long-term Trial of Deferiprone in 51 Transfusion-Dependent Iron Overloaded Patients. Blood 1998, 91, 295-300; Olivieri, N. F. Long-term Therapy with Deferiprone. Acta Haematoi. 1996, 95, 37-48; Olivieri, N. F.; Brittenham, G. M.; McLaren, C. E.; Templeton, D. M.; Cameron, R. G.; McClelland, R. A; Burt, A D.; Fleming, K. A Long-Term Safety and Effectiveness of Iron-Chelation Therapy with Deferiprone for Thalassemia Major. N. Engi. J. Med. 1998, 339, 417-423; Richardson, D. R. The Controversial Role of Deferiprone in the Treatment of Thalassemia. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 2001, 137, 324-329]. Unfortunately, although it is orally active, it is less efficient than sc DFO at removing iron. Whereas the orally active tridentate chelator deferasirox has now been approved by the FDA, it did not demonstrate non-inferiority to DFO. Furthermore, it apparently has a somewhat narrow therapeutic window, owing to potential nephrotoxicity, noted in animals during the preclinical toxicity studies [Nisbet-Brown, E.; Olivieri, N. F.; Giardina, P. J.; Grady, R. W.; Neufeld, E. J.; Sechaud, R; Krebs-Brown, A J.; Anderson, J. R; Alberti, D.; Sizer, K. c.; Nathan, D. G. Effectiveness and Safety of ICL670 in Iron-Loaded Patients with Thalassaemia: a Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Dose-Escalation Trial. Lancet 2003, 361, 1597-1602; Galanello, R; Piga, A; Alberti, D.; Rouan, M.-C.; Bigler, H.; Sechaud, R. Safety, Tolerability, and Pharmacokinetics of ICL670, a New Orally Active lron-Chelating Agent in Patients with Transfusion-Dependent Iron Overload Due to Thalassemia. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2003, 43, 565-572; Cappellini, M. D. Iron-chelating therapy with the new oral agent ICL670 (Exjade). Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 2005, 18, 289-298]. In addition, Novartis has recently (April, 2007) updated the prescribing information for deferasirox: “Cases of acute renal failure, some with a fatal outcome, have been reported following the postmarketing use of Exjade® (deferasirox). Most of the fatalities occurred in patients with multiple co-morbidities and who were in advanced stages of their hematological disorders” [Exjade Prescribing Information, www.pharma.us.novartis.com/product/pi/pdf/exjade.pdf (accessed May 2007)]. Finally, ligand 1 is an orally active tridentate DFT analogue now in phase I/II trials in patients. Although the preclinical toxicity profile of 1 was relatively benign, that is, no geno- or reproductive toxicity and only mild nephrotoxicity at high doses, the clinical results remain to be elucidated.
It is an object of the present invention to provide novel desferrithiocin analogues useful for the treatment of iron overload in mammals and the diseases associated therewith.